I’ve been thinking about this question over the last couple of weeks. There have been parallel discussions on the Indexer’s Discussion Group (IDG) and CindexUsers email lists about AI and indexing, in response to Ben Vagle’s announcement of his latest AI indexing tool, Indexia. If you are not part of those email lists, you are welcome to join and go back to read.

You may recall that Ben released a different AI indexing tool earlier this summer, AI-indexing, which I mentioned here. This new tool seems to be an upgrade or a rebrand; I’m not sure how it is different, to be honest. It is described as a “professional indexing assistant,” capable of “generat[ing] a fully structured initial draft with terms, contextual subentries, and page references—giving you a professional starting point in minutes, not weeks.” I believe Indexia is still in the beta stage. I have not tried it.

In the ensuring discussions and Ben’s responses to questions, I was struck by the emphasis on term extraction. In Ben’s program, AI identifies and extract terms, along with their context and locators, which the human indexer can then edit. A “fully structured initial draft” is promised, but what does structure mean in this instance? Looking at the examples on the Indexia website, I wonder if structure actually means format, as in alphabetical sort and punctuation and tabs in all the right places. 

I thought again about term selection and structure last week while corresponding with a client. When the author contacted me, they also sent a list of terms that they had already written. I thanked them for the list, and explained that I would take it into consideration while also reading their book and selecting terms myself. The author then asked about my process for creating “the list.” Which is a great question and I was happy to answer. But I was struck by the use of the word “list.” When I index, I don’t think of it as compiling a “list” but rather as writing an index.

In both of these instances, I wonder if there is a misconception that an index is essentially a list. It is as if structure is a byproduct of arranging headings and subheadings in a certain way. No more complicated than that.

Flip through a handful of nonfiction books on your bookshelf and you are likely to find at least one index that does look like a list. There is no, or very little, sense of movement and relationship between terms. There are no, or very few, cross-references. Subheadings may be sparse. All of the headings—names and concepts—exist on one level. 

I like to think of those indexes as flat. They give the impression that not much is happening.

For some books, a list-like approach is indeed appropriate. I am not trying to say that every index needs to be complicated. But if the author or indexer assumes that an index is simply a glorified list, then the resulting index is probably not going to be very good. What is missing is a clear structure.

I like to think about structure in terms of the hierarchy of information. Information within any given book is typically layered or nested. At the top is the metatopic, which is what the book as a whole is about. Below the metatopic, often given their own chapters, are the supermain discussions, which are the key facets or arguments of the metatopic. Below the supermain discussions are the regular discussions, which flesh out the supermains. At the bottom are all the little details and examples which further give life to the book.

Mirroring the book, the index should somehow reflect each of these layers. The metatopic, supermain, and regular discussions should each have their own arrays. The relationships between topics and levels should be clear through subheadings or cross-references. Instead of a list, the index becomes an interconnected web, allowing the reader to enter the text through multiple entry points. This is what I mean when I say that the index needs a coherent structure.

What the structure actually looks like for any given index will vary. While I often have an approach in mind when I begin an index, I don’t recommend trying to shoehorn an index into a specific template. It is important to pay attention to how the book is actually written and how the information fits together.

That said, by way of example, here are three different structures for three different types of books:

• A book with a strong, central metatopic, like a biography or a corporate history. This will likely have an extensive metatopic array for the central subject. I don’t like breaking up a person’s life and scattering those chunks throughout an index. Other main topics and details, which can stand alone, would be their own arrays, revolving around the central subject.

• Other books, say a business book on leadership, can more easily be broken down into their constituent supermain discussions. Each leadership quality, in this example, would receive its own array with subheadings. The metatopic array, for leadership, would likely be short, mostly consisting of cross-references to the various qualities. This is a more decentralized structure, anchored by the various qualities. 
• Other books may be even more decentralized. A hiking guide, for instance, is essentially a list of hiking trails, along with details of scenic mountains, lakes, or rivers, which readers may also search for. A metatopic array for hiking is probably not useful, unless there is generic hiking advice or safety tips which need to go somewhere. Supermain arrays may also not be relevant, though if the hikes are organized by region or theme, then perhaps those regions or themes should also be reflected in the index. Instead, the emphasis in the index should be on the individual hikes, along with other relevant details. This may end up looking like a list, and that’s okay because it suits the content. 

In the three examples above, the index structure varies considerably, from an extensive metatopic array anchoring the index to the emphasis being on all the details. The appropriate structure depends on what the book and audience needs. What remains true in each case is that the choice of structure is deliberate. 

When structure is ignored, or assumed to be a byproduct, or thought to be synonymous with format, I fear that the index is not going to be nearly as useful or easy to navigate. A list is fine. It’s also inert, doesn’t indicate relationship or the depth of complexity that exists within a book. I know that the index is supposed to point to information, not reproduce the book, and I think that giving the index a clear and deliberate structure is the best way to point towards information, rather than compiling a list which is easy to gloss over. 

A good structure is also part of the value that a human indexer can bring. As human indexers, we do more than extract terms. We can organize and structure those terms to provide context and to facilitate navigation and retrieval. We can go beyond a list.

So be human. Be creative. Be intentional. When writing an index, let structure guide your decision-making, alongside term selection. 

If I may dare say, let’s help make the world a better place, one excellent index at a time.

I recently indexed the fifth volume in the Alpha Wolves of Yellowstone series, written by Rick McIntyre and published by Greystone Books. Rick has been observing and studying the wolves at Yellowstone National Park for about 25 years. His books are an intimate portrayal of the lives of the wolves, beginning with the first generation that was reintroduced into Yellowstone and continuing up to the present day. Each book typically focuses on one or two key individuals, and from there explores the dynamics within packs, between packs, and the role that wolves play within the Yellowstone ecosystem. I indexed the first volume, The Rise of Wolf 8, in 2019, and the latest volume, Thinking Like a Wolf, will be released later this year.

I highly recommend the series if you are interested in wolves, Yellowstone, or animal conservation. My Grandpa even enjoyed the first couple of volumes, when he was still able to read. I remember visiting and discovering the books in his home. He was pleasantly surprised to learn that I had indexed them, though to be honest, I don’t know if Grandpa ever fully understood what it is I do.

Indexing Wolves

From an indexing standpoint, the books present an interesting puzzle. The focus is squarely on the lives of the wolves, though with a few dozen wolves discussed and mentioned in each book, it can be difficult to remember which is which. Most of the wolves are radio collared and assigned a number (wolf 8, wolf 480, wolf 996, etc…). While the numbers make it easier to differentiate, they can also be difficult to remember. There are also a few wolves without radio collars who are referred to by nicknames, such as Big Blaze, Medium Gray, and Slant.

Another challenge is that while the author does an excellent job of weaving a narrative, there are also a lot of elements in the lives of the wolves that are repetitive. The wolves grow up, they find mates, they raise pups, they hunt, and the next year, if they survive, they do it all over again. They also frequently interact with other packs and other animals, such as bison. Each book typically spans several years, following the lives of the featured wolves. How best to index all of that without making the index too repetitive?

Both of these challenges have to do with structuring the index, which proved to be the biggest challenge. The structure should be meaningful to the subject matter and easy to use. Though once I figured out my approach, I used the same approach across all volumes. For a series, it helps to have the same indexer throughout to maintain consistency, so that readers know what to expect in each subsequent volume. 

In this index profile, I am going to outline how I approached the structure, using examples from the third volume in the series, The Redemption of Wolf 302, which was published in 2021. 

Placing Wolves in Context

As I mentioned, it can be difficult to remember which wolf is which. It can also be difficult to remember which wolf is part of which pack. So, I decided to use the em-dash-modified format to place all of the wolves together within their respective packs.

The value of this approach is that it keeps each pack together. Readers only need to look in one place to see all of the details about that pack. The downside is that this can lead to large arrays. One of the largest in The Redemption of Wolf 302 is for the Slough Creek pack, with 36 subheadings under the main heading and 16 members listed using em dashes.

To give a shorter example, here is the main heading and 4 of the 11 wolves listed under the Agate Creek pack:

Agate Creek wolf pack: background, xxii; Blacktail pack formation and, 200, 201–2; breeding, 108, 160, 207–8; confrontation with Druid Peak pack, 20–22; confrontations with Slough Creek pack, 35, 96; grizzly encounter, 135; humans encounter, 136–37; injured pup, 158, 165; membership changes, 214; pup rearing, 136; size, 23, 206–7; Slough Creek pack’s territory and, 139; visits between related females from other packs, 218; wolf 302’s interest in females, 162

—Big Blaze (alpha male), 197, 201, 206, 208, 209, 214

—wolf 06: introduction, 85, 92, 141; Blacktail pack and, 200–201, 208–11; future of, 245; hunting abilities, 211; independent living, 214, 220; interest in wolf 302, 163; photographs, plate 7, plate 8; relationship with sister, 136; return to Agate pack, 207–8

—wolf 471. See under Lava Creek wolf pack

—wolf 472 (alpha female): avoidance of Slough Creek pack, 35; breeding, 108, 160, 207–8; confrontation with Druid Peak pack, 21; disturbance from humans, 137; pregnancies and pups, 85, 92–93, 135, 214; relationship with wolf 113, 106–7

Individuals vs. Packs

Using this structure, I also differentiate between discussions about the pack as a whole and discussions about the individual members within that pack. In the example above, the initial set of subheadings under the “Agate Creek wolf pack” main heading are about the pack as a whole. Those discussions generally involve multiple members of the pack or, in the case of the injured pup, an unnamed member. Those subheadings also provide an overview of the pack’s activities.

Specific discussions and mentions about each member are found under each specific wolf. There is some overlap between the pack-level subheadings and the specific members. For example, under the alpha female wolf 472, the subheadings for “breeding” and “confrontation with Druid Peak pack” are also under “Agate Creek wolf pack.” This reflects the fact that pack-level activities involve specific wolves, which are often mentioned, and so double-posting is necessary. Though I also try to honor this distinction between pack and individuals, and not everything needs to be double-posted. 

Directing Readers

With so many wolves, and with the wolves indexed under their respective packs, it is also important to clearly direct readers to where the wolves can be found. I’ve done this in two ways.

One, all of the wolves are listed (not double-posted) as a main entry with a cross-reference to their respective pack. With 45 numbered wolves in this volume, this makes for a very long list of cross-references in the W section of the index. While it looks awkward, I think it is the clearest way to direct readers. For example,

Big Blaze. See under Agate Creek wolf pack

wolf 21. See under Druid Peak wolf pack

wolf 629. See under Slough Creek wolf pack

Two, some of the wolves leave their birth packs and either join a different pack or help establish a new pack. Some wolves move multiple times. For these wolves, I also include cross-references from their former packs to their new pack. For example,

Agate Creek wolf pack

—wolf 590. See under Slough Creek wolf pack

—wolf 642. See under Blacktail wolf pack

I chose not to double-post the wolves because I think the wolves make the most sense within the contexts of their packs. I want readers to be able to see the full picture. With so many wolves, I think it also helps readers if the wolves are handled consistently, so readers come to expect that the wolves will always be in a certain place. Also, with such a long list of wolves in the W section, I think that list is easier to scan if they are all cross-references, instead of cross-references mixed with page numbers.

Labeling the Alphas

To further differentiate the wolves, especially the leaders, I also decided to use glosses to label the alpha males and females. These wolves tend to be discussed more, and I thought a gloss would help readers identify them more easily. For example, under the Blacktail pack:

Blacktail wolf pack

—Big Brown (alpha male): as beta male, 207; Blacktail pack formation and, 206, 215; breeding, 203, 208, 209; mention, 218; name, 201; as new alpha male, 241; pup rearing, 228

—wolf 693 (alpha female): introduction, 92; aggression against sister, 136, 200, 211; Blacktail pack formation and, 201, 215; breeding, 203, 207, 208–9, 212; denning, 218; photograph, plate 8; pup rearing, 219, 222, 224, 225, 227; in Quadrant pack’s territory, 235, 236, 238, 241; relationship with wolf 302, 214, 237; unpopularity, 216

Indexing Repetitive Elements

As I also mentioned, one of the challenges of indexing these books is that wolves tend to do the same sorts of things throughout their lives. If all goes well, the wolves will breed and raise a new litter of pups every year. The wolves also hunt, encounter other animals, and interact, sometimes aggressively, with other packs.

I decided that it did not make sense to organize the arrays chronologically, as in a new subheading for each litter of pups. That would greatly lengthen the index and make it more difficult to read. Instead, I decided to gather like happenings together, regardless of year or the number of times it happened. For example, under Agate Creek’s wolf 472, above, I include all references to her pregnancies and pups into one subheading. 

I also use similar wording for subheadings throughout the arrays. As seen for the Agate Creek pack, above, I have subheadings for “confrontation with Druid Peak pack” and “confrontation with Slough Creek pack,” as well as “grizzly encounter” and “humans encounter.” This helps to signal to readers that something similar is happening in each subheading, and it helps to keep double-posts, such as under the Druid Peak and Slough Creek packs, consistent throughout the index. 

To give another example, elk are among wolves’ preferred prey, with the book describing multiple hunts. In the array for elk, I differentiate the hunts by pack and by wolves, which are also double-posted under those packs and wolves.

elk: breeding season and, 65; calves, 222; conflict between packs over, 22, 98, 202; hunting by Druid Peak pack, 38, 88, 112, 141, 142, 143–44, 149, 151, 163–64, 176–77, 179–80, 185–86, 222, plate 4; hunting by Slough Creek pack, 16–17, 45, 53, 57, 120–21, 127–28, 165, 176–77, 191, 195; hunting by wolf 06, 211; hunting success rate, 185; injuries from, 180–84; near den sites, 41, 187–88; scabies, 149–50; shortage of, 217; wolf 302’s fear of carcasses, 112–13

When structuring an index, every entry has its place. 

This is especially true for the books in the Alpha Wolves of Yellowstone series. Containing a lot of wolves, and a lot of details about wolves being wolves, the index entries needed to be structured in a way that made sense for the subject matter and was easy for readers to navigate. 

I hope I have accomplished that with my approach. While every index has a structure, I needed to think more deeply and be more creative in my approach for this series. I also hope that these examples give you some ideas for what is possible and for how to approach a book with unusual needs.